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探究醫療人物傳記中醫學術語的翻譯策略一一 以《如履薄冰：拯救兒童生命的奇跡》第五章（節 選）為例
發布時間：2023-03-16 10:28
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements i
摘要 ii
Abstract iii
Table of Contents iv
1.Introduction 1
2.Process Description 3
2.1Pre-translation Preparation 3
2.2Translation Schedule 4
2.3Quality Control 4
3.Literature Review 6
3.1Definition of medical terminology 6
3.2Translation strategies for medical terminology 6
4.Case Analysis 9
4.1 Terms with standardized translation 9
4*2 Terms without standardized translation 12
4.2.1Literal Translation 13
4.2.2Free Translation 15
4.2.3Transliteration 17
4.2.4Restitution 20
5? Conclusion 24
References 26
Appendices 28
Appendix 1 28
Appendix 2 51
1. Introduction
Walk on Water: The Miracle of Saving Children's Lives (hereinafter referred to as Walk on Water) is a heart-warming narrative of the treatment of congenital heart diseases (CHD). The author, Michael Ruhlman, focuses on the daily work of Dr. Roger Mee, the chief pediatric heart surgeon, and other medical staff at Cleveland Clinic, a top hospital with the No.l heart program in the U.S. Like in his other books on one specialized field, say, culinary skills and boat making skills, Mr. Ruhlman is trying to shed light on the craft of congenital heart surgery. It takes a captivating look at how virtuoso doctors endeavor to repair children's damaged hearts, but at the same time showing the human side of the medical profession. Nonetheless, this memoir, written from a journalist's perspective instead of a medical professional's, shows how distressing life can be under the influence of CHD. Readers of this book have no difficulty in empathizing with CHD patients and their parents as the author also incorporates a touching account of their struggling with fate. In other words, this biography achieves a delicate balance between medical expertise as well as compassionate human stories.
What, first of all, motivates the translator to choose this text is that it is emotionally overwhelming. Reading the book leads the translator to reconsider life from a fresh new perspective. Secondly, this intimate chronicle of pediatric heart surgery is informative. For Chinese readers, a Chinese translation might help to explain complicated heart surgeries and demystify the profession as heart surgeon.
Among the 11 chapters in this book, the translator selects chapter five, "A Beautiful Heart", as the source text. Made up of 22180 words, this chapter is dedicated to the treatment and, finally, heart transplantation surgery for a fbur-month-old patient named Drew. Nonetheless, the author switches skillfully between sketches of the operating room and stories outside the hospital. The chosen text is characterized by the author5 s careful observation as well as basic explanation of professional knowledge in medical practice. One of the toughest challenges in this translation project is the translation of medical words and expressions permeated through this chapter. In the first place, to understand medical terms necessitates background knowledge through
extensive research, and to render English terms into Chinese requires proper translation approach.
Composed of five chapters, this thesis represents an attempt to investigate the effective strategies for the translation of medical terms based on this project. Chapter one begins by offering a brief introduction to the translation project and the rationale for choosing the original text. Chapter two traces the process of this project. A significant step in this project is pre-translation preparation, which includes the selection of parallel texts and reference books. This part also shows how computer- aided translation tools can contribute to the success of a translation project. A translation schedule is given so as to keep the project on track. The last part of a translation project is quality control. Chapter three concentrates on the definition of medical terminology and previous studies on the translation of medical terminology. This thesis contends that the definition of medical terminology should extend to all the words and expressions relating to diseases, medicine, human body, procedures as well as common medical jargons. Focusing on analysis of approaches in translating medical terminology, this part provides insights into the frequently-employed techniques for the interpretation of medical terms. Chapter four intends to provide readers with strategies in case analysis. The emphasis in this chapter is on the translation of terms without standardized translated versions. It suggests that practical translation methods include literal translation, free translation, transliteration and restitution. Chapter five draws together the analyses of translation methods for translating medical terms. By looking at how medical terms are put into Chinese in the narrative, it hopes to offer insights into Chinese translation of medical terms.
2. Process Description
2.1Pre-translation Preparation
Useful computer-aided translation tools help to boost productivity in the translation process. Since leading translation software including Trados and MemoQ are not available in Mac OS operating system, the translator resorted to a web-based translation platform, i.e. Power echo (云譯客).Power echo features free term bases, some of which are trustworthy ones such as English-Chinese Medical English Dictionary. Before setting about translating, the translator needed to log in and import the source text.
The source text, incorporating in medical knowledge, is loaded with terminologies related to heart diseases. Prior to the translation process, the translator uses Termbox (語帆術語寶)for extraction of terminologies. Altogether 2,398 candidate ternis are identified in the monolingual term extraction, and the number is narrowed to 229 after filtration.
The translator avails herself of tv/o dictionaries ibr accurate delivery, namely Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (online version: httDS：//www.ldoceonline.com/) and Oxford Chinese Dictionary. Termonline (httD：//www.termonline.cn/index.htm), an online terminology database, offers free, informative and authoritative access to Chinese translation of many teiminologies. This database is established by China National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies, the national institute for standardization of terms in China. Furthermore, the pre-translation process also includes selection of parallel texts. In this case study, the translator chooses Comprehensive Surgical Management of Congenital Heart Disease、with a Chinese version translated by Liu Jin fen and Sun Yanjun, two outstanding pediatric cardiologists at Shanghai Children's Medical Center. This textbook, originally written by Richard A. Jonas, features an in-depth analysis of congenital cardiac surgery, thus benefiting the translator to a great extent as to background knowledge and references of terminologies. Besides, The Legends of Cardiac Surgery^ a fascinating popular scientific book by Li Qingchen, is particularly informative and should be listed here as a reference book of cardiology.
2.2Translation Schedule
To keep the process on track, the translator sketched out a detailed plan for thesis writing.
June 1st-June 20th, 2019 Select the source text
June 21st-June 30lh, 2019 Select the parallel texts and reference texts
July 1st-July 15th, 2019 Read the source text thoroughly and note down terms that need to be confirmed after extracting terms with CAT tools
July 16th - July 31st, 2019 Translate the source text
August 1"一 October 15th, 2019 Write a proposal and revise
October 16th, 2019 Oral defense for proposal
October 20th-November30th, 2019 Modify the translation and mail it to medical professional for proofreading
December 1st - December 31st, 2019 Finish the first draft of the report
January 1st- February 28th, 2020 Modify the report
May 11th-May 17th, 2020 Oral defense
2.3Quality Control
The translator re-read the translation carefully and revised a few mistakes in the target text. Nonetheless, the understanding of a few terms is beyond the capabilities of the translator. Thus, this translator emailed it to her thesis supervisor who provided valuable advice in terms of translation of some words and sentences. To improve the quality of the translation, the translator also invited suggestions from a graduate student in medical anthropology. In other words, the translation was cross-checked and has received constant revision.
3? Literature Review
3.1Definition of medical terminology
Terminology, as explained by Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, includes 6tthe technical words or expressions that are used in a particular subject：
A study by Susan Koch-Weser points out the types of medical terminology in clinical settings, including drug names (e.g. prednisone, ibuprofen), diseases and disease processes (e.g. diabetes, arthritis, Raynaud"), parts of the body (e.g. blood, urine, oestrogen), symptoms (e.g. bluish, diarrhoea, convulsions, inflammation), treatments or medical procedures (e.g. arthrogram, appendectomy, caesarean, hospitalization), names of medical specialties (e.g. gynaecologist) and other words that do not fit in any of the above categories.
3.2Translation strategies for medical terminology
Studies on translati on strategies of medical terminology in China did not come out until 2003 when Nan Yan discussed this topic in a paper entitled "On the Translation of English Medical Terminologies： In this pioneering essay, the author attempted to sum up four strategies in translating English medical terms. The first strategy is free translation (意譯)，through which core meaning of terms could be expressed clearly. Examples include translating “anemia" as "貧血"and ''primitive gut" as "原腸 ” .The second strategy is transliteration (音譯)，meaning transcribing the alphabet of original English term into corresponding characters in Chinese. For instance, ’Faseline" put into Chinese as "凡士林：The third strategy is pictographic translation (象譯)，meaning expressing the original idea with the help of specific images. The Chinese equivalent of "T?bandage" is “丁字帶” as the Chinese character “丁" resembles “TH The last translation strategy, according to Nan, is copying the English letter (形譯).To give an example, ''X-rays59 should be translated as “X 線” because “X" has medical connotation here.
Nan's proposed translation strategies are further analyzed by Yan Ting. Based on her classification of medical terms, Yan mapped out four strategies, namely 1) literal translation (直譯)，which applies to the majority of term categories; 2) transliteration (音譯);3) free translation (意譯);4) pictographic translation (象形譯)(Yan, 2010). It is evident that Yan's strategies are to some degree different from Nan's since Yan highlighted the importance of literal translation. As suggested by Yan, terms are often clearly-structured, so translators can follow literal translation strategy. For example, “rose spot" is translated as "玫瑰疹"and ured blood cell” is rendered as "紅血球細胞 Contrary to the literal (word-for-word) translation method is free translation, which emphasizes the delivery of meaning. In a subsequent paper, Yan added a fifth strategy, i.e. a combination of transliteration and free translation (Yan, 2011). For instance, “Galen anastomosis^^ is put into Chinese as "蓋倫氏吻合in that “Galen'； as a name of a person, should be transliterated while "anastomosis''' has its Chinese translated version as "吻合二 Focusing on equivalence in both form and meaning, Yan's literal translation strategy is close to what Nan has discussed about free translation. Moreover, according to Yan, medical English is characterized by its good structure, strict logic, precise diction and accurate terms. With regard to translation of specialized terms, Yan laid down three general rules, calling attention to accuracy, uniformity and specialization (Yan, 2010).
Nonetheless, both Nan and Yan's analysis, concentrating on translation of complete technical words, overlooks one fact that terms are often used in variant forms in daily communication. There exist a variety of common colloquial words and phrases in medical discourse, which are not standardized and have received little academic attention. Doctors and nurses tend to use words and phrases in shortened forms in their practice. Examples include 'fccath,? (a short form of “catheteL or "catheterization, a medical jargon which means a tube or the placement of tubes in the body) and ^preop^ (short form of "preoperativb； meaning before an operation). Moreover, the usage of terms may differ among different medical groups. As David Evans et al. points out, the medical community do not have a “common, uniform, and comprehensive approach to the representation of medical informationM (Evans, Cimino, Hersh, Huff^ & Bell, 1994). How to decode nonstandard terms and render them into Chinese deserves more discussio n.
Research by Wang Zhichen, Gao Lei and Yuan Yuehong distinguishes itself from other studies as it suggests that translation of medical terms should be context-oriented (Wang, Gao, & Yuan, 2010). The study shows how common words are introduced and used in the medical world. To give an example, the word ^general55 should be interpreted in varied ways according to its contexts: ''general check-upn is translated as “普查“general anesthesia^ means "全身麻醉七 “general peritonitis55 is put into Chinese as “彌漫性腹膜炎9,; ''general hospital^ signifies "綜合性醫院二 Therefore, medical translators should infer the actual meaning of terms from the context and logic and then choose a proper translation.
Apart from the above-mentioned translation methods such as transliteration as well as the dichotomy of literal and free translation, Wen Jun and Li Peijia suggest another seven translation approaches to technical terms in English-Chinese translation. They include: a combination of transliteration and free translation （音意兼譯）；split translation （拆譯），applicable to translation of words derived from Greek and Latin origins; restitution （還原），a method for rendering abbreviations; explanation （釋譯）, meaning to provide an interpretation rather than translation, and coining new words （倉U 造新詞）.Wen and Li，s exploration broadens the scope of potential techniques for the translation of terms.
4. Case Analysis
This thesis seeks to explore translation strategies for medical terms in the medical biography. In the chosen chapter, medical terms include cardiac terms, drug names, surgical procedures and jargons used in medical settings. In the interest of analysis, the author is inclined to categorize all the terms into two groups. The first type is terms with standardized translations published by China National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies (CNCTST). For example, aortic stenosis, epinephrine and ICU are monosemous terms with standard Chinese equivalents. The recommended strategy for translating these terms is to follow the confirmed translations. In contrast to terms without standardized translation are terms that have not been standardized yet and whose translations are therefore open for discussion. In rendering terms without standardized translations, four strategies are employed, namely literal translation, transliteration, free translation as well as restitution.
4.1 Terms with standardized translation
Translation of medical texts requires precision. This part examines how Termonline, the standard online terminology database can be of use in translating terms. To ensure accuracy in translating these terms, translators should adopt standardized Chinese translations published by CNCTST if standard Chinese equivalents are available.
Example 1
ST: After several more hours Angie and Bart were given the bad news: their little baby had been unable to come off pump, so his chest had been left open and he”d been put on ECMO (the extracorporeal membrane oxygenator), a last-ditch device that within a matter of days could cause multiple organ failures or massive damage to his central nervous system—if, that was, ongoing heart failure or sepsis didn't kill him first.
TT:數小時后，安琪和巴特得到了壞消息：小孩不能脫離心肺機，所以胸腔 沒有縫合，醫生給他使用了體外膜氧合器(ECMO) , ECMO多用于危重疾病的 搶救，數日之內可引發多器官功能衰竭或中樞神經系統損傷，前提是持續的心臟 衰竭或膿毒癥還沒有奪走他的生命。(see Appendix I, p. 36)
Analysis: This sentence features tenns that describe diseases, human body and medical devices, i.e. "ECMCT： "multiple organ failures,\ ''central nervous system55, uheart failure55 and “sepsis二 The translator searched these terms in Termonline and found their corresponding Chinese translations. They should be rendered respectively as “體外膜氧合器，；“多器官功能衰竭中樞神經系統冷“心力衰竭"and “膿毒 癥二 Moreover, this sentence also includes 6Ccome off pump'； an expression that has posed great challenge for the translator, which will be analyzed in detail in subsequent parts.
Example 2
ST: They^e fine for a while, so long as the ductus stays open—the ductus being the patent ductus arteriosus, or PDA, which maintains communication between the aorta and the pulmonary artery.
TT:在出生后一段時間內，他們身體狀態良好，雖然導管保持開口狀態，即 動脈導管未閉(PDA),動脈導管是連接主動脈和肺動脈的一根血管c (see Appendix l,p. 33)
Analysis: This sentence is aimed to explain patent ductus arteriosus, one type of congenital heart defect. All the three medical terms included in it have Chinese equivalents confirmed by CNCTST. Hence the translator chose to adopt the available Chinese translations: “patent ductus arteriosus59 meaning "動脈導管未閉"，"aorta，' meaning "主動脈and ''pulmonary artery'" meaning "肺動脈二
Example 3
ST: Then, too, his body has likely adjusted its physiology by altering its levels of epinephrine and other catecholamines—hemicals that set off the fight-or-flight reaction that helps us stay alive in dangerous situations— but that balance can be precarious; at any second he could have a heart attack right there in Carlos's arms.
.TT:另外:他的身體可能已經調整其身體機能，通過改變腎上腺素和兒茶酚 盛劑量——這兩種物質可以引發人們的應激反應，從而讓人在危險時刻維持生命 但很難把握平衡；他在卡洛斯的懷里隨時有可能心臟病發作。(seeAppendix l,p. 42)
Analysis: In this example, "epinephrine" and "catecholamine屮 are medical terms not commonly known by laypersons. A search on Termonline shows that “epinephrine" is translated as “腎上腺素” while “catecholamines" is put into Chinese as 亦兒茶酚胺二
Example 4
ST: She cranks his tiny head back and slips a bright silver intubating blade into his mouth and down his throat, peering down it as she goes to make sure she's past the vocal cords and into the trachea and not in the esophagus—she"s got to be fast and accurate here because the baby's lungs are paralyzed, and he has no way of getting oxygen until she has the tube in.
TT:她將孩子的小頭轉過來，將銀色的喉鏡片插入口腔，至咽喉，眼睛緊盯 著導管插進去，因為她必須導管保證穿過聲門，成功插入氣管而不是食管——她 得保證動作迅速且準確，因為孩子的肺部已經麻痹，只有寶拉插入導管后他才能 吸到氧氣。(see Appendix 1, p. 42)
Analysis: This case contains terms in human anatomy. According to the online database, “vocal cords'； trachea； and Uesophagus■,^ respectively refer to “聲門：“氣 管"and "食管二
Example 5
ST: At the children's hospital a cardiologist diagnosed TGA/IVS (transposition with intact ventricular septum) and performed a balloon atrial septostomy, threading a tube with a balloon on the end into a vein in Drew's groin, then up into his atria, and popping a hole between them to enable better mixing of the blood.
TT:在兒童醫院，心臟病醫生診斷德魯為室間隔完整型大動脈錯位 (TGA/IVS),為其進行了球囊房間隔造口術，球囊導管由股靜脈插入，經過心 房，在中間開口以使血液更好地混合。(seeAppendix 1, p. 34)
Analysis: This sentence about the initial treatment for Drew contains five medical terminologies: TGA/IVS, balloon atrial septostomy, vein, groin and atria. The translator firstly resorted to Teimonline to see if it includes corresponding Chinese translations. The result turns out to be astonishing, as only two of them have Chinese translations: “vein” means "靜脈” and “atria” means “心房二 The word "groin*1' is rendered as "腹 股溝"by Oxford Chinese Dictionary. The next step is to look up the other two terms -
in parallel texts. “TGA/IVS'，and "balloon atrial septostomy" are put into Chinese as "室間隔完整型大動脈錯位沖and "球囊房間隔造口術二Meanwhile, the translator tried to ascertain the meaning by doing research online. An article on the website of Jiangsu Women and Children Health Hospital clearly explains the process of balloon atrial septostomy.
Example 6
ST: Next she swabs the baby's neck with antiseptic, just over the right jugular, so she can insert a double-lumen catheter down this vein, into the superior vena cava, and into the right atrium of the heart, where it will monitor pressures.
TT:接著再用抗菌劑擦拭德魯頸部的右頸靜脈，從而可以在靜脈下方插入 雙腔導管，至上腔靜脈和右心房，雙腔導管可在這里監測血壓。(seeAppendix 1, P- 43)
Analysis: This part offers an intimate peek into the operating room where medical staff are engaged with the pre-procedure preparation. This sentence portrays, in particular, how Paula, the anesthesiologist, inserts a catheter into the patienfs heart. The translator firstly did search on the term database and successfully found the accepted Chinese translation of terms, including tjugular,,9 "'superior vena cava'” and "right atrium,5. They are rendered respectively into Chinese as "頸靜脈二“上腔靜脈” and “右丿C?房"? Though the database has not included the term "double-lumen catheter,\ it provides the Chinese version "多腔導管” of "multiple lumen catheter： In this manner, t6double-lumen catheter,, should be put into Chinese as "雙腔導管t
4.2Terms without standardized translation
This section is designated to look at how to deal with terms without standardized translation. In translating the chosen text, the translator encountered a large number of terms that cannot be found in Termonline. The translator tried to respond to this challenge by utilizing dictionaries and parallel texts. Nevertheless, extensive research is also needed to figure out the meaning of terms which cannot be found in dictionaries and parallel texts. Four strategies prove to be at work in translating medical terms without standardized Chinese equivalents. They are: literal translation, free translation, transliteration, and restitution.
4.2.1Literal Translation
A literal translation is a translation that is close to both the form and meaning of the original text. This word for word translation strategy is widely used in technical translation in general. As Cardos de Camargo (as cited in Cronin, 2003, p.l 19) contends, “literal translation is actually one of the most frequently used translation strategies in technical text： Despite the huge differences between the Chinese language and the English language, there are certain similarities, for example, similar word order and sentence structure. It is also worth noting a wide range of medical terms are structured with explicit prefixes and suffixes with Latin or Greek origins. Therefore, English readers can quickly discern the meaning of a fair proportion of medical words. Examples include hepatomegaly, heparin, glychorrea. Literal translation can be employed to render terms that are explicit in both meaning and structure.
Example 7
ST: Dan Murphy comes in wearing one of the spare gowns that usually hang by the O.R. doors, a bouffant cap, a mask, and paper booties over his penny loafers. He's been paged to do a TEE, or transesophageal echo.
TT:丹•墨菲走進了手術室，身穿著備用手術袍，手術袍通常就掛在門邊上， 他頭戴著一頂蓬松的帽子，臉上戴著口罩，穿著便士樂福鞋，樂福鞋外面圍了紙 套。他被叫來做經食管超聲心動圖(TEE)。(see Appendix p. 44)
Analysis: The Chinese translated version of 6'transesophageal echo” cannot be found in the online terminology database. The website of Cleveland clinic offers an introduction of TEE, saying "…(TEE) test is a type of echo that uses a long, thin, tube (endoscope) to guide the ultrasound transducer down the esophagus ("food pipe炳 that goes from the mouth to the stomach).b, Literally, transesophageal, composed of trans- (prefix, meaning through) and esophageal (adjective form of esophagus), refers to going down the esophagus; echo, short for echocardiography, means examination of heart
1 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/4992-echocardiogram-transesophageal-tee with the assistance of ultrasound techniques. Therefore, a clear and specific Chinese equivalent can be "經食管超聲心動圖二
Example 8
ST: Roger identifies enough of the right atrium to accommodate a single venous cannula, a tube that will suck in all the blood returning from the body and send it to the bypass machine.
TT:羅杰認為右心房有足夠空間可以進行單靜脈插管，這根插管先吸引回 收血液，后將血液運送至心肺機。(see Appendix 7, p. 50)
Analysis: This sentence includes two medical terms, namely “right atriunf' and "single venous cannulET. Search on the term platform indicates that the former has a recognized Chinese rendition while the latter "single venous cannula,5 does not have a standardized Chinese translated version. In fact, single venous cannula refers to a technique used in procedures for ufor repair of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection in neonates,5 (Ojito, 2001).
Example 9
ST: Dan stands and faces Roger to tell him the news: the function is still terrible. Roger is at this instant busily trying to control all the bleeding from the vascular adhesions.
TT:丹面對著羅杰站著，告訴羅杰：心臟功能沒見好轉。此刻羅杰正忙著處 理血管粘連出血。
Analysis: The source text depicts one scene in heart surgery. The term ''vascular adhesion^^ consists of two words, namely vascular (adjective form of vessel) and adhesion, meaning an abnormal adhering of surfaces due to inflammation or injury. This term denotes adhesions of vessels, thus can be interpreted as "血管粘連"in Chinese.
Example 10
ST: "Pleging," Kevin says as he delivers the poison that will stop the patient's heart.
“What's your plege pressure?55 Roger asks. uFve got about thirty/5 he answers.
TT: “心臟麻痹，凱文一邊說，一邊灌注心臟麻痹液。
“你看到逸搏心律是多少？ ”羅杰問。“30左右，”他回答道。
Analysis: The translator found it quite difficult to ascertain the meaning of the term 6<plegeM only with the help of the database and the selected parallel texts. It was in an article on cardiopulmonary bypass machine that the translator worked out its meaning. As a medical jargon, <tplegeM is another form of "cardioplegia". With its origin from two Greek words “cardio” (heart) and “plege” (paralysis), the word denotes the paralysis of heart? Correspondingly, the word can be put into Chinese as “丿C?臟麻痹
4.2.2Free Translation
Free translation is a translation that attempts to reproduce the general meaning of the original text but avoids following closely the structure of the original text. Translators can should try to deliver the message rather than keep the "fixed meaning,, of any given word.
Medical terminology is quite complicated, and in the context of health-care everyday words can carry uniquely clinical meanings. A major impediment to understanding medical language is common expressions with special meaning in medical contexts. This part claims that free translation is an appropriate strategy for translating ordinary words with medical meaning. Under these circumstances, the translator should not interpret in a verbatim manner. Instead, it is important for translators to do a thorough investigation so as to identify these terms. Translating words with medical meaning requires translators to accurately reproduce the original meaning in the translated text.
Example 11
ST: Bob the scrub nurse removes a pair of gloves from their paper wrapper and holds them out for Roger, who looks, in his hood, headlight, louped glasses, and gown, almost like an underwater explorer.
TT:器械護士鮑勃從手套紙盒中拿出一副手套給羅杰，羅杰戴著醫用頭套、 頭燈和眼鏡式手術放大鏡，像極了潛水員。(seeAppendix 7, p. 48)
Analysis: The term "scrub nurse99 bewildered the translator at first, since it could be found in neither the terminology database nor the parallel text. According to Longman Dictionary, Uscrub up,5 refers to washing hands and arms prior to doing a medical operation. However, a scrub nurse9s major responsibility, as shown in the sentence, is assisting doctors with tools during procedures. Therefore, the translator chose to transfer the meaning of this term into Chinese as "器械護 士二
Example 12
ST: Fackelmann sponges Drew^ entire upper body with Betadine, an inky brown antiseptic, then stretches a yellow adhesive sheet over his chest; this Betadine-infused draping will supply further protection against infection. Frank and Fackelmann now begin to drape.
TT:法克曼在用海綿蘸必妥碘(碘伏)擦拭德魯的整個上半身，必妥碘是一 種深棕色的抗菌劑，接著將一張黃色接著劑膠片平鋪在德魯的胸口上；覆蓋的這 層必妥碘可以進一步保護德魯免受感染。弗蘭克和法克曼開始鋪(see Appendix l,p? 43)
Analysis: This sentence gives details of the necessary steps before a surgery for Drew. One of the essential procedures in the prep is "drape". However, this word is not contained in the terminology database or parallel texts. As an entry in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, the word means “to put something somewhere so that it hangs or lies loosely” and 4tto cover or decorate something with a cloth二 These two explanations do not suffice to detail the exact step in the prq>. Then the translator managed to understand the word via a search on google images. Surgical drapes are used in the OR to provide a physical barrier that protects the surgical field from contamination2. Accordingly, in surgery, the verb “drape" should be interpreted as “鋪 巾二
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine ?an d-de ntistry/surgical?drape
4.2.3Transliteration
Ln translating English names into Chinese, the frequently utilized method is transliteration. Transliteration, according to Zhang Dacong, involves transferring the alphabet of the source language into ^identical or similar-sounding Chinese characters" (Zhang, 1983, p.443). Ao Huibin (2008) argues 廿at the recoiTmiendeu translation strategy of products in the field of medicine and chemistry is transliteration, through which consistency with international naming conventions could be achieved. In this case, the translator opted for the transliteration strategy in rendering names of pharmaceutical products as well as some of the procedures?
Example 13
ST: When the baby is asleep, thanks to the drug that will also maintain his blood pressure and heart rate, she paralyzes him with Pavulon.
TT:孩子入睡后，多虧有維持血壓和心律的藥物，寶拉可以通過注射巴夫龍 讓德魯短時呼吸暫停。(see Appendix 1,p. 42)
Analysis: Pavulon is a medicine which as a term has not been standardized yet. The translator did an online digging and found out that Pavulon is a pharmaceutical trademark of a muscle relaxant called pancuronium bromide injection,\ This medical product has two translations in Chinese, i.e. “潘龍"and "巴夫龍二 The translator chose
"巴夫龍"as the Chinese version here, in line with the principle of "similar sounding^, in transliteration.
Example 14
ST: Fackelmann sponges Drew's entire upper body with Betadine, an inky brown antiseptic, then stretches a yellow adhesive sheet over his chest; this Betadine-infused draping will supply further protection against infection.
TT:法克曼在用海綿蘸必妥碘(碘伏)擦拭德魯的整個上半身，必妥碘是一 種深棕色的抗菌劑，接著將一張黃色接著劑膠片平鋪在德魯的胸口上覆蓋的這 層必妥碘可以進一步保護德魯免受感染。(seeAppendix 19p. 43)
Analysis: Betadine is a brand name of Povidone-iodine, a common antiseptic used to prevent skin infections. Povidone-iodine, also known as "碘伏"in Chinese, is an item that can be found in many Chinese households. Compared with this generic name, the brand Betadine is less familiar to people in Chinese mainland. Considering its scientific name, this brand can be transliterated into Chinese as “必妥碘二
Example 15
ST: She nods and hangs the first bag of irradiated 0 positive blood on the rolling metal pole, and Roger asks Bob Cherpak if he's got the 8-0 Prolene stitches ready. Stitches of this size are so fine as to be almost invisible; though Roger rarely requests them, he believes ifs critical to use the smallest possible material on a micro bypass that won't tear the vessels.
TT:寶拉點點頭，在移動金屬架上掛上了第一袋RH陽性O型血，羅杰又 問鮑勃•切帕克是否已準備好普里林縫合線。這樣大小的線十分精細，小到 幾乎看不見；雖然羅杰很少主動要求準備這類縫線，但他覺得應該在縫合極細的 冠狀動脈旁路時使用最細的縫線，這樣一來可避免扯到血管。(seeAppendix llP. 46)
Analysis: Prolene is a type of polypropylene, “a monofilament synthetic suture”— Here indicates the size of this stitch. Online investigation reveals that Prolene is
a closing material widely used in Chinese hospitals and has an accepted Chinese
3 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/p「olene transliteration "普里林二 Thus, "8-0 Prolene stitches" should be expressed as “8-0 普 里林縫合線二
Example 16
ST: Carlos sets up the drips while Mike Fackelmann retrieves a Foley catheter.
TT:邁克•法克曼取來了福萊導尿管時，卡洛斯準備好靜脈滴注器。(see Appendix 1, p. 43)
Analysis: The medical term Foley catheter is an eponym. This medical device, meaning a tube used to drain urine, is derived from the name of its inventor Frederic Foley. To put "Foley" into Chinese, the closest corresponding characters should be "福 萊二 In addition, catheter is literally translated as "導尿管t
Example 17
ST: By mid-August Drew's doctors felt he was well enough to go home on Lasix (a diuretic that reduces swelling and edema) and aspirin, which acts as a mild blood thinner.
TT:到八月中旬時，德魯的醫生團隊認為，他可以回家觴養，用來適泄錠(咲 塞米)(一種利尿劑，可減輕腫脹和水腫)和阿司匹林，阿司匹林是一種溫和的 血液稀釋劑。(see Appendix 1, p. 37)
Analysis: It is evident that "Lasix" is a kind of medication given to Drew. At first, however, the translator could not find the word in the terminology database, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Oxford Chinese Dictionary and parallel text. It was through online investigation that the translator finally understood this drug. Lasix is, in fact, a brand name of furosemide, a drug commonly used to treat high blood pressure and edema. Furosemide is commonly translated as "咲塞米"while the brand name is known to Chinese medical community as "來適泄錠二 Consequently, the translator opted to keep in the target text the translation of the product, followed by the translation of its generic name, so as to give Chinese readers a clear idea of the original information.
Example 18
ST: Roger told me the story of a family who had a baby with hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS)* This was at a time when the Norwood operation was still young, and Roger was quoting a 50 percent mortality rate.
TT:羅杰和我講了一個故事，有家人家里有一個小孩，身患左心發育不良綜合征 (HLHS) o彼時，諾伍德手術還尚未成熟，據羅杰說，這個手術的死亡率是50%o
Analysis: Norwood operation is an open heart surgery for the treatment of hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS). This procedure is named after William Norwood, who pioneered the first successful surgical management program for HLHS. According to the principle of "name after (the ownery, in translating names and the transliteration method, Norwood operation can be rendered into Chinese as “諾伍德手 術駕
4.2.4Restitution
Though efforts have been made to standardize the names of terms, it is worth noting that usage of terms does differ among medical professionals and groups. Many terms in the original text are shortened, which entails the translator doing investigation to retrieve their actual meaning? Besides, there5re plenty of abbreviated terms in the original text. To avoid confusion, the proposed approach is to restore the intended complete information in the target text.
Example 19
ST: Between two and three hours later a nurse reported to Angie and Bart that the surgeon had found an abnormality called an intramural coronary, which was unusual in this particular form of transposition and potentially a problem.
TT:德魯如期于七月25日迸行了手術，手術進行了兩、三個小時后，有護 士來告訴巴特和安琪，醫生發現了異常情況：壁內冠狀動脈，這在這種特殊類型 的錯位中十分罕見，且可能會是個大麻煩。(see Appendix 1, p. 34)
Analysis: Problem arises as to how to define "intramural coronary二 Since preliminary research on Termonline yielded zero result, the translator consulted the parallel texts, finding out that ''Intramural coronary,^ is, in fact, short for t£intramural coronary artery^ According to the Chinese translation in the parallel texts, it should be expressed as "壁內冠狀動脈二
Example 20
ST: Because the coronary that's supposed to feed his systemic ventricle is blocked off, that left ventricle has virtually stopped fiinctioning; it's now ejecting only 8 percent of its volume.
TT:由于為左心室供血的冠狀動脈閉塞，德魯的左心室幾乎停止工作，射血 分數只有 8%o (see Appendix /, p. 29)
Analysis: The most difficult challenge in translating this sentence lies in the interpretation of “ejecting". As an entry in Longman Dictionary, uejecr does not have medical definitions. Then the translator tried to search on Termonline to see if there exists a standardized Chinese translation of the word. Retrieved results indicate that “ejecfis derived from the terminology 4ieft ventricle ejection fraction,\ meaning "左 心室射血分數：In order to convey the same information to Chinese audiences, the translator opted to add footnote. In this way readers can have a clue of the normal value of left ventricle ejection fraction.
Example 21
ST: When surgeons first started performing switches, Dan told me, they'd needed angiograms to determine whether the coronaries were complex. Mee had been one of the first to dispense with that tool—he'd simply started going in and figuring out how to fix whatever he happened to find.
TT:丹告訴我，醫學界最早開始做動脈轉位術時，醫生需要為患者做術前冠 狀血管造影，判斷冠狀動脈是否復雜。梅伊醫生是最早一批可以省略這一步驟的 醫生之一——他習慣直接開始手術，一邊做一邊思考如何解決碰到的問題。(see Appendix 1, p. 41)
Analysis: The major challenge in translating this sentence lies in the understanding of the term “switch". The translator tried to look up this word in Longman and Oxford dictionaries but failed to find any medical explanations. It was through extensive online investigation that the translator finally grasped the meaning of this word in medical context. Switch is a shortened form of “arterial switch procedure： whose established Chinese rendition should be "動脈轉位術二 Thus, the translator chose to put the full Chinese translation in the target text so as to specify the original information.
Example 22
ST: Kevin begins to lower the temperature of the blood to 22 degrees Celsius (71 °F), to cool the patient in preparation for cross-clamping of the aorta and the delivery of potassium into the coronaries to stop the heart.
TT:凱文將血液溫度降低至22弋，為患者降溫，以準備主動脈橫斷鉗閉術， 以及給冠狀動脈輸注鉀溶液以實現心臟停搏。
Analysis: The challenge in translating this sentence lies in ''cross-clamping of the aorta,5. Online research shows that ucross-clamping of the aorta，' should be "aortic cross-clamping^^ in thoracic and cardiovascular surgery. Thus, the translator attempted to restore in the target text the original meaning of this medical term. And ''cross- clamping of the aorta" should be put into Chinese as "主動脈橫斷鉗閉術'I
Example 23
ST: A little after one o'clock this afternoon, Mike Fackelmann, the O.R. P.A., anesthesiologist Paula Bokesch, and nurse Mark Myer entered room 1 of the P1CU to prep Drew and take him to the O.R.
TT:下午一點剛過，手術室醫師助理邁克•法克曼，麻醉醫生寶拉•波凱什 和護士馬克•邁爾一同來到兒科重癥監護治療病房，為德魯做術前準備，再帶他 到手術室。(see Appendix lr p. 29)
Analysis: This sentence involves three abbreviations that are connected to hospitals and medical professionals. To deliver the complete information to Chinese readers, the translator adopted the restitution strategy by rendering O.R. P.A. as "手術 室醫師助理二PICU as “兒科重癥監護治療病房J and O.R. as “手術室二
Example 24
ST: After several more hours Angie and Bart were given the bad news: their little baby had been unable to come off pump, so his chest had been left open and he'd been put on ECMO (the extracorporeal membrane oxygenator), a last-ditch device that within a matter of days could cause multiple organ failures or massive damage to his central nervous system—if, that was, ongoing heart failure or sepsis didn't kill him first.
TT:數小時后，安琪和巴特得到了壞消息：小孩不能脫離心肺機，所以胸腔 沒有縫合，醫生給他使用了體外膜氧合器(ECMO) , ECMO多用于危重疾病的 搶救，數日之內可引發多器官功能衰竭或中樞神經系統損傷，前提是持續的心臟 衰竭或膿毒癥還沒有奪走他的生命。(see Appendix ltp. 36)
Analysis: "Come off pump'" is an extremely complicated expression for layman readers. Preliminary search shows that the phrase cannot be found in Termonline and parallel texts. The interpreting of this medical term "pump” involves deep digging. As a widely used tool, pump can mean different things in dozens of settings. In the field of medicine alone, it has multiple meanings including insulin pump, infusion pump, drug pump, etc. When associated with open heart surgery, pump has a unique meaning. Pump is a shortened form of ^cardiopulmonary bypass pump'： which is often referred to as heart-lung machine? In heart surgeries, it plays the role as human heart by pumping blood through human body. Since the word is prone to misunderstandings, it is necessary to restitute the meaning in the target text. It should be rendered in Chinese as “心肺機"rather than “泵二
5? Conclusion
Thanks to the continuous advancement of modem medicine and the rapid growth of health-related fields, there has been an increasing demand for medical translation. Though translation of medical terms has received extensive academic attention, little effort has been made to look at how medical terms, which include words, expressions, slangs and jargons, are used by medical professionals and in the meantime how terms are translated in medical practice. This report reflects on the Chinese translation of chapter five in a medical biography named Walk on Water: The Miracle of Saving Children fs Lives.
The major obstacle for the translator is the translation of medical terms. Therefore, this thesis tries to discuss possible translation strategies of medical terms. As a medical narrative, the original text is laden with medical terms relating to human body, cardiac diseases, medicine, heart surgery and medical appliances. These terms could be classified into two categories, namely, terms with standardized translation and terms without standardized translation. For terms with existing standardized translation confirmed by CNCTST and published in Termonline, it is suggested that translators follow the equivalent Chinese version confirmed by CNCTST.
As for terms without standardized translation, translators need to search in parallel texts and other reliable references to determine a proper translation. Literal translation is applicable to terms with explicit meaning and structure. In terms of translation of pharmaceutical products and procedures, the translator could put into Chinese the closest corresponding characters. What is more, free translation is needed when some of the terms cannot be rendered in verbatim manner. As for incomplete terms and abbreviated terms, the translator should do one's utmost to restitute the original information in the target text.
However, some limitations of this report should be noted here. First, it is based on the experience of a translation less than 20 thousand words, thus sample number is limited. A variety of terms might defy the categorization. Second, the proposed translation methods are based on this translation project, meaning they might not be applicable for the translation of all medical terms. Nonetheless, this translation report intends to, firstly, explore the viable translation strategies for medical terms and contribute to the development of medical translation; secondly, to demystify the medical profession and call for a more amicable doctor-patient relationship.
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